NATO Individual Democratic Institutions Research Fellowships (1994-1996)

Why Public Service Broadcasting Eastern vs. Western Europe: Circumstances and Challenge Catalin Preda (Romania) [Back to Index]

Chapter 1: Introduction Framework and circumstances The idea of broadcasting as a service to the public is an European original. The very concept of public service broadcasting, as opposed to broadcasting solely as a profit-making business operation, was developed in Europe and it has given Europe the world's best radio. So the idea of public service broadcasting is part of the European cultural heritage, something for all Europeans to be proud of. We may say on the other hand that at no time in the seven decades of its existence has radio been subjected to such far-reaching and profound changes as in the last few years. It is correct to say that, following the predominance of television in the 1960's, a radio renaissance took place in the 1970's. One of the causes of this was the restructuring of the radio channels, chiefly on the lines of expanding up-to-the-minute news and scheduling music for the younger audience. Another was the advent of smaller, handier, and easier-to-use pocket transistor-sets which enabled radio to become a portable medium that could accompany the listener anywhere. On the top of that, however, one may discern a number of factors that sharped radio in the 1980's and the first half of 1990's, or will go on sharping it. The news element of radio programme services has been strengthened. Almost everywhere there are news broadcasts every hour, and quite often every half- or quarter-hour. Topical reports from reporters on the scene or foreign correspondents are included at any moment, day or night. In this race for the fastest, latest news, which radio was still able to win in the 1970's and 1980's, television conquered step by step the market starting with the CNN, which had a tremendous success, and continuing with other television stations, mainly European, that have introduced round-the-clock news and information programmes. This was possible, on one hand, due to the superior infrastructural arrangements of the modern TV stations and, on the other hand, because more and more people prefered to seeing the news instead of just hearing them. Meanwhile, the use of radio as a political tool has diminished. Until quite recently radio was in many European countries an instrument that governments used to impose political and societal goals. Broadcasting organizations in most European countries were gradually removed from direct government control and subjected merely to state supervision limited by statute. This happened partly in parallel with a democratization of external surveillance, introduction of internal co-management machinery, and extensive liberation of the editorial work from external tutelage. Since 1989, the last phase of this process is experienced in the former Eastern Bloc countries, where free and democratic broadcasting structures have been taking shape. Simultaneously with the above, a commercialization of the programme offer and a struggle for competitiveness between public and private commercialy-funded radio stations took place, so that in many European countries public service radio had to go from solely licence-funding to mix-funding, both licence fee and advertising. Another factor is that the explosive increase in the number of radio-channels, following the licensing of private broadcasters, has led to an unmistakable trivialization of the programme offer. Under the pressure of existing competition, new channels sought gaps in the music and spoken markets in areas where cultural and artistic standards had set limits on traditional programmes. The upshot was not only a mighty expansion of the pop and rock music of all tendencies and quality on offer, but also the marketing of serious music, as conveying status signals, as vehicle for certain branded goods aimed at the top end of the market. Where the public service radio organizations recognized the threat from this competitive situation and reacted in good time, their efforts were not unsuccessful and public service radio scored points.

The situation in Central and Eastern Europe: The fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 has unleashed profound political and economic changes in many of the Eastern and Central European countries. The commitment of these countries on a democratic way and the access to the free market economy involved also changes to their audiovisual systems, sometime radical ones. An important advantage of this process is, for the broadcasting domain in this area, the huge extension of choice-possibilities for programmes and stations. There are also some disadvantages. Maybe one of the most important is the sometime poor quality of the programmes. Almost all the new private radio stations born since 1989 are broadcasting mostly English and American music and some of them small talk-shows and utility information. Very few are broadcasting serious political, economic and social news, as required by this dificult transition-period through which Central and Eastern European countries are passing. This is why public broadcasters in the area, with their huge experience and wide range of programmes - provided for as many as possible social, ethnic, religious and linguistic groups, with their highly qualified staff, and their extended penetration into territory, are required to go ahead, even if, or mainly because their audience is slightly declining (to the benefit of the private commercial radio stations). Throughout Central and Eastern Europe, Parliaments have been groping to define the place of the press in a democracy. Not a single one has come up with a satisfactory and comprehensive solution from the standpoint of press freedom and democracy. In many of the new would-be democracies, there have been so many generally unsatisfactory drafts of press laws that even those most directly involved in the process lost count. When a continuing struggle over press laws left legal vacuums and a lack of clarity, the opportunity has been there for governmental backsliding and arbitrariness, as in the cases of government leaders removing the heads of radio and television in Hungary and Russia. The perplexity of the region's lawmakers towards media laws and the questionable approaches they are prepared to adopt demonstrates just how much the basic communist approach to the press has affected the thinking even of aspiring democrats. For example, when the Polish Parliament proclaims that Polish broadcasting "should respect the Christian value system," it shows that the communists succeeded in persuading their most ardent adversaries that they should consider the press a tool to be used for some purpose. The Polish broadcast law of December 1992 goes beyond even this widely remarked upon call to adhere to Christian values, stating: "Broadcasts may not advocate activities contrary to the law or to the interests of the Polish state, or [express] attitudes and opinions contrary to morality and the general interest." By the summer of 1993, Poland was one of only four former Soviet Bloc countries that have managed to pass new broadcast laws, along with the former Czech and Slovak Federal Republic, Latvia and Romania. Elsewhere, countries have been managing with the old communist legislation, which allows governments to act arbitrarily because changed conditions have left legal vacuums. Even in the Czech Republic, the former communist country where experts say one finds the best understanding of press freedom, the government abandoned its attempts to pass a press law after journalists objected to a draft containing restrictions on the press so complex that its framers never got around to outlining its freedoms. And the case was similar in Romania and in most other countries where the Parliaments are in the same disarray regarding press laws, stuck in various draft stages. In Hungary, the requirement that any press legislation be passed by a two-thirds majority means there it may never be a law. This, however, has not prevented the government from vetoing foreign investors in the press whom the new power structures fear might be politically hostile. Nor has it prevented Hungary's Prime Minister at the time, Josef Antall, from stating his apparently sincere frustration that a press in a new democracy does not automatically support his democratically elected government. In this, the observers say, he is not much different from a number of his colleagues in the West (Mr. Jacques Chirac, former Prime Minister of France and currently President of the country is one of the examples). In the context of this situation it is usefull to specify that in 1987, journalists from 34 countries held a World Conference on Censorship in London. They approved a Charter for a Free Press enjoining governments to respect the Universal Declaration for Human Rights and to refrain from the kinds of practices that were used to throttle freedom of expression under totalitarian rule. Formally adopted by a long list of international free-press organizations, its 10 points are not a corporatist plea, but a collective appeal by journalists as citizens to all governments that, for freedom's sake, they should keep their hands off the press. The Charter for a free press A free press means free people. To this end, the following principles, basic to an unfettered flow of news and information both within and across national borders, deserve the support of all those pledged to advance and protect democratic institutions. Censorship, direct or indirect, is unacceptable; thus laws and practices restricting the right of the news media freely to gather and distribute information must be abolished, and governmental authorities, national or local, must not interfere with the content of print or broadcast news, or restrict access to any news source. Independent news media, both print and broadcast, must be allowed to emerge and operate freely in all countries. There must be no discrimination by the governments in their treatment, economic or otherwise, of the news media within a country. In those countries where government media also exist, the independent media must have the same free access as the official media to all material and facilities necessary to their publishing or broadcasting operations. States must not restrict access to newsprint, printing facilities, and distribution systems, operation of news agencies, and availability of broadcast frequencies and facilities. Legal, technical, and tariff practice by communications authorities that inhibit the distribution of news and restrict the flow of information are condemned. Government media must enjoy editorial independence and be open to a diversity of viewpoints. This should be affirmed in both law and practice. There should be unrestricted access by the print and broadcast media within a country to outside news and information services, and the public should enjoy similar freedom to receive foreign publications and foreign broadcasts without interference. National frontiers must be open to foreign journalists. Quotas must not apply, and applications for visas, press credentials and other documentation requisite for their work should be approved promptly. Foreign journalists should be allowed to travel freely within a country and have access to both official and unofficial news sources, and be allowed to import and export freely all necessary professional materials and equipment. Restrictions on the free entry to the field of journalism or over its practice, through licensing or other certification procedures, must be eliminated. Journalists, like all citizens, must be secure in their persons and be given full protection of law. Journalists working in war zones are recognized as civilians enjoying all rights and immunities accorded to other civilians. Bearing in mind all these situations and ideas I am setting out to my study in which I am comparing the public service radio experience of Western Europe with the traditions existing in this field in Central and Eastern European countries. I do this in order to give the readers of these lines the possibility to create themselves a comprehensive image of the problems raised by the public radio broadcasting. I also dedicate my work to those in Central and Eastern Europe who want to find out how can public service radio in this area improve its performances and catch up with the highest European and world standards. For achieving these goals I studied facts and situations in three Western countries - France, Denmark, and United Kingdom, and in five Eastern European countries - Romania, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Poland and Bulgaria. With some radio broadcasters from these countries I had direct contacts myself, and for the others I carried out my research in the Archives of the European Broadcasting Union - EBU, in Geneva - Switzerland. Of course, I took the opportunity to also study the organization and the functioning of the EBU. The idea for the subject of my research has come to me from a declaration published in 1993 by the European Broadcasting Union under the title: "Why public service broadcasting. Public service broadcasting: Europe's opportunity."

Here is the "Declaration of the EBU Conference on Public Service, held in Brussels on 29 and 30 November 1993": Public service broadcasting: Europe's opportunity Europe can be proud of the long tradition of its public broadcasting. Every day, the radio (and television) public service channels attract tens of millions of listeners (and viewers). On the eve of an unprecedented audiovisual revolution, public service broadcasting is more important than ever. In this World in search of a new equilibrium, with the omnipresence of the media in everyday life, radio (and television) cannot escape far-reaching changes. In Europe, the public service broadcasters are no longer alone; commercial channels are multiplying and technological development will greatly accelerate this movement. The coexistence of a public service sector and commercial companies can in itself, perhaps, be stimulating. Nonetheless, European society cannot be confined to a concept of broadcasting in which all that count are the laws of the marketplace and the constraints of advertising, and in which certain essential elements of information, education and culture have merely a token value. Europe deserves better. It must be also more demanding. It has a right to expect that radio (and television) contributes actively to its further development and to reinforcing its identity, calling on the fundamental values of tolerance, diversity of opinion, free speech, the critical spirit, and humanism. Only public service broadcasting can offer at the same time: Programming for all in which everyone, whether the general public or minority audiences, can find programmes which inform, entertain, and enrich ruling out any cultural, sexual, religious or racial discrimination, and rejecting any social segregation by age or purchasing power as a factor of social cohesion technically accessible by the entire population A basic general programme service, backed up by thematic channels: truly generalist primary channels offering news and current affairs, enrichment, and entertainment, when faced with segmentation of programme offers together with thematic channels dealing in greater depth with certain components of the basic service A forum for democratic debate: With news and current affairs reporting which: is impartial, independent, explanatory and pluralistic stimulates debate and clarifies the issues counterbalances the trend towards trivialization and sensationalism Unrestricted public access to events of significance: live coverage of important news events major sports events outstanding cinema films important cultural and musical event A reference standard for quality: an enhancement of all programme categories a concern for quality, making the public more demanding of all channels a sense of ethical and professional responsibility A spirit of innovation: providing a counterweight to the uniformity of programmes offered as a result of competition daring to create programmes without constantly aiming at maximum audience figures Extensive original production: retaining control of the product and its content stimulating and supporting European production maintaining original production in smaller economic and linguistic markets A showcase for culture: promoting intellectual and artistic life providing cultural exchanges through international co-operation between broadcasters developing partnerships with the film industry, the live theatre, the world of music, and cultural institutions A contribution to reinforcement of the European identity and of its cultural and social values: with the transborder flow of news, ideas and culture active and impartial participation in the emergence of true public service broadcasting in central and eastern Europe A driving force in technological research and development: active involvement in research and the development of European standards in close co-operation with industry introduction of new production and distribution techniques available to all broadcasters a guarantee that everyone may enjoy the benefits of the best possible technical quality at the best price. Public service broadcasters commit themselves to these objectives with all their energy. Refusing any moves towards marginalization, they are determined to play a front-ranking role and to figure amongst the leaders in terms of overall audiences. To carry on their mission effectively, they must: be politically and financially independent; possess legal structures allowing for dynamic management in a context of growing competition; adapt their strategies to the rapid and continuous evolution of their environment, streamline structures, reduce operating costs and increase productivity; be able to draw on adequate and evolutionary mix funding, both public and commercial, taking into account national traditions. Public service broadcasters seek to persuade European states that they have a responsibility to secure the legislative framework necessary for the accomplishment of these objectives. The public service created European broadcasting. Today, more than ever, this constitutes an opportunity for Europe. It must seize this chance and build upon it. Following the Declaration "Public service broadcasting: Europe's opportunity," issued in Brussels in November 1993, the participants to the 12-th annual 'Circom' Regional conference held together with the EBU Seminar on strategic questions of regional broadcasting in Europe, issued "The Iasi Declaration on Regional Public Service Broadcasting in Europe, adopted in Iasi - Romania on 1-st June 1994." It is stating that: Genuine regionalism is a devolution towards more direct democracy in the regions. Each region is a cultural unit, with a common heritage, present and future. It is often a linguistic and cultural minority as well. Regional broadcasting in Europe deserves more and better attention. National broadcasters should deal with regional broadcasting not merely as a component of the national consciousness, but as an indispensable part of public service broadcasting, however it is funded. The relationship should be one of an interactive communication. The regional audience has a very close relationship with its regional broadcaster. Only broadcasters who recognise a duty to serve that audience are capable of covering the regions in a specifically pluralistic, balanced and impartial way. Regional broadcasting in Europe includes many models: inserts into central programmes, separate regional programmes windows, speciality programming for central networks. The best and strongest have a combination of all elements. Because of the closeness to the audience there is often a danger of over-reflecting parochial views and nationalistic developments. Therefore the application of strong ethical and professional standards must apply, together with all the other safeguards of civil society. Regional broadcasting is one of the best answers to the fragmentation of audiences, resulting from the explosive growth in the number of channels in Europe. The motivation of regional public service broadcasting is not primarily profit. But it is the provision of a service, which gives value for money. It has develop a disciplined approach to serving its audiences, an understanding of the importance of audience ratings and audience research and has to adopt new types of relevant regional programmes. Public service broadcasting, balanced in context, is the best prevention against an over-concentration of the media ownership at regional level, based only on commercial results or political monopolies. An important element of the pluralism of regional broadcasting is an acceptance of independent producers. Regional broadcasting can be effective only with adequate editorial, production, scheduling and financial autonomy. Essential for the success of regional broadcasting is adequate technical equipment, which enables flexibility. It should be multi-purpose, cost effective and advanced. Regional broadcasting is not limited within national boundaries. On the contrary - the very existence of Circom-Regional proves the advantages and needs of trans-border regional co-operation in the fields of programme production, training and free expression of ideas. Regional broadcasting offers the best opportunities for ethnic and other minorities to present their views and information for dissemination, artistic expression and promotion in order to convey their message. This programmes must also observe the basic standards and ethics of public service broadcasting. The diverse circumstances of regional broadcasters in Europe requires professional and financial assistance in training, investment, adequate legislation and standards. EBU and Circom-Regional will continue to support and promote the development of regional broadcasting and call upon European institution and professional bodies and associations to assist in this task. Co-ordination and harmonisation of action is needed. Circom-Regional is the only co-ordinator of regional broadcasting in Europe. It is the most competent authority in this field, and should play an active part in the decision making process. As Central and Eastern European Countries have all expressed their firm intention to accede into European structures, it is very clear for everyone that the integration must be done in all fields, including that of broadcasting. For accomplishing this goal, central and eastern European countries involved in the historic process of integration with the West, must have as a guide for their public electronic media the "European Public Service Broadcasting Charter": The remit of public service broadcasting is to ensure that every member of the public has access to one or more quality radio (and television) channels, providing maximum diversity of programming produced and transmitted to the best possible technical standards. To this end, public service broadcasting organizations have set for themselves the following objectives: To ensure varied and balanced programming, intended for all audiences; this programming should also: provide programmes offering impartial news and information, diversified culture, education, and quality entertainment; constitute a forum for free speech and pluralism of opinion, in order to contribute to the democratic process; cater for all significant audience categories, including minorities To provide a service of optimum technical standard for the entire population of their countries or regions. To participate in research and development for new production and transmission standards. To contribute to the development and expansion of all forms of creative production. In particular, a significant proportion of programmes should be produced by the broadcasters themselves or on their initiative. To develop all forms of partnership with the cinema, with the live theatre, with industry, and with cultural institutions. To intensify Euroradio (and Eurovision) programme exchanges, particularly in the news and information field. To intensify their common participation in the construction of an international, and in particular European, audiovisual space. To attain these objectives, which they have set themselves in the interest of audience, public service radio (and television) broadcasters should be: provided with legal structures and forms of management most appropriate to the conditions for development of an increasingly competitive audiovisual sector; assured of diversified funding at a level which has regard to an increasingly competitive environment; guaranteed economic and political independence. Public service radio (and television) broadcasters urge governments to take appropriate action for the creation and the maintenance of the above-mentioned conditions, in the spirit of the resolutions adopted at the Council of Europe's Ministerial Conferences on Mass Media Policy.