Books

The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia: An Exercise in Law, Politics, and Diplomacy / Rachel Kerr - Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2003.

On 25 May 1993, the United Nations Security Council took the extraordinary and unprecedented step of deciding to establish the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) as a mechanism for the restoration and maintenance of international peace and security. This was an extremely significant innovation in the use of mandatory enforcement powers by the Security Council, and the manifestation of an explicit link between peace and justice, and politics and law. The establishment of ad hoc tribunals for the former Yugoslavia and Rwanda was followed by the adoption of the Rome Statute of the ICC in July 1998, the arrest of General Augusto Pinochet in London in October 1998, and the establishment of ad hoc tribunals in Cambodia, Sierra Leone, and East Timor, all of which pointed to an emerging norm of international criminal justice. The key to understanding this is the relationship between the political mandate and the judicial function. The Tribunal was established as a tool of politics, but it was a judicial, not a political, tool. This book provides a systematic examination of the Tribunal, what it is, why it was established, how it functions, and where its significance lies. The central question is whether an international judicial institution such as the Tribunal can operate in a highly politicized context and fulfil an explicit political purpose, without the judicial process becoming politicized. Separate chapters chart the origins of the court; the process of establishment; jurisdictional procedure; state cooperation, including obtaining custody of the accused; and the role and function of the Chief Prosecutor. This last element is the key to the Tribunal's success in maintaining a delicate balancing act so that its external political function does not impinge on its impartial judicial status, and instead enhances its effectiveness. The book concludes with an assessment of the conduct of the Milosevic case to date.

Homeland Calling: Exile Patriotism and the Balkan Wars / Paul Hockenos - Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2003.

Over the last ten years, many commentators have tried to describe and analyze the bloody conflicts that tore Yugoslavia apart. But in all these attempts to make sense of the wars and ethnic violence, one crucial factor has been overlooked - the major, often decisive, role played by exile groups and emigre communities in fanning the flames of nationalism and territorial ambition. Based in the United States, Canada, Europe, Australia, and South America, some groups helped provide the ideologies, the leadership, the money, and in many cases, the military hardware that fueled the violent conflicts. Atypical were the dissenting voices who drew upon their experience in Western democracies to stem the tide of war. In spite of the diaspora's power and influence, however, their story has never before been told, partly because it is so difficult, even dangerous, to unravel. The author, a Berlin-based American journalist and political analyst, has traveled through several continents and interviewed scores of key figures, many of whom had never previously talked about their activities. The author investigates the borderless international networks that diaspora organizations rely on to export political agendas back to their native homelands - agendas that at times blatantly undermined the foreign policy objectives of their adopted countries.

Milosevic: A Biography / Adam LeBor - London: Bloomsbury, 2003.

Slobodan Milosevic is a man the world hoped it would never see again. His leadership prompted four bloody wars and horrific ethnic cleansing, which drove Yugoslavia into the ground, and yet for a decade he managed to wrap the local media and the international community around his little finger. In this first authoritative biography, the author documents Milosevic's deeply unhappy childhood, his all-important marriage to Mira and his personal and public relationships, and explains his dramatic rise to power, the looted money (estimated at $30 billion), international politics, illicit ventures and powerful loyalties. This fascinating story leads to Milosevic's inevitable fall from grace and his trial at the International Criminal Tribunal in The Hague for crimes against humanity.

War in the Balkans, 1991-2002 / R. Craig Nation - Carlisle Barracks, PA: US Army War College, 2003.

This book was written to address the need for a comprehensive history of the Balkan wars provoked by the collapse of the Yugoslav Federation in 1991. These wars, and the instability that they have provoked, became preoccupations for international security management through the 1990s. After an initial phase of distancing and hesitation, Balkan conflict drew the United States and its most important European allies into an open-ended commitment to peace enforcement, conflict management, and peace-building in the region, importantly supported by the US Army. These efforts are still underway, and significant tensions and potential flashpoints remain in place within former Yugoslavia and the entire Southeastern European area. The lessons learned from the new Balkan wars, and the successes and failures of US and international engagement, provide a significant foundation for future efforts to manage intractable regional conflict. The Balkan conflict of the 1990s, as a case study in state failure and medium intensity warfare, international conflict management and intervention, and US military engagement, provides an excellent framework for asking basic questions about the dynamic of international security at the dawn of a new millennium. This book is intended to provide a foundation for addressing such questions by surveying events in both contemporary and larger historical perspectives and posing preliminary conclusions concerning their larger meaning.

Neither War Nor Not War: Army Command in Europe During the Time of Peace Operations: Tasks Confronting USAREUR Commanders, 1994-2000 / Richard Moody Swain-Carlisle Barracks, PA: US Army War College, 2003.

With the removal of Saddam Hussein's regime, the US Army has again demonstrated its prowess at warfighting. But while two wars against Iraq have gained the most attention for the Army, its ability to undertake complex less-than-war missions is equally important for the promotion of US national interests. To a large extent, the Army developed its skill at tasks like peace operations 'on the fly' in the 1990s when it was committed to places like Somalia and, most importantly, the Balkans. As with any new endeavor, mistakes were made, but most were quickly corrected. By the turn of the 21st century, the Army has developed impressive skill at large, complex peace operations. This study is a seminal contribution to the analysis of the Army's role in the Balkans. The author's mission was to analyze the Bosnia peace operation from the perspective of US military leaders. To do this, the author collected an immense amount of primary source material, much of it unavailable to other analysts. The result is a work that is of interest to both scholars and military leaders.

The History of Serbia / John K. Cox - Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2002.

Shattering Yugoslavia in 1991, the outbreak of war turned the world's eyes to the Balkans. Interest in the region's history increased as the war escalated, yet the emotional charge surrounding the Balkans' recent tribulations can threaten objectivity. A level perspective is required when confronting the complex web of Serbian history, politics, society, and culture. This balanced and engaging written history of Serbia dissects how its citizens have dealt with enormous political, military, and socioeconomic challenges. In addition to examining the politics of Serbia in the context of Central Europe, the author shows how societal and cultural developments affected Serbia and reflected political and economic events. His study removes the veils of stereotype and myth, which have often obscured significant details and developmental processes in Serbia's history. This book includes : A timeline of significant events in Serbia's history; An introductory chapter on Serbia today; Twelve chronologically organized narratives ranging from the splendor of medieval Serbia to a new beginning after the downfall of Slobodan Milosevic; Four historical maps; Brief biographies of key figures; A glossary of terms; A bibliographic essay providing valuable resource material for readers.

Bosnia after Dayton: Nationalist Partition and International Intervention / Sumantra Bose - London: Hurst, 2002.

Since 1996, Bosnia and Herzegovina has been the site of a remarkable project of political engineering. A complex consortium of international agencies backed by Western governments have been transforming a devastated, ethnically partitioned, post-war territory into a multiethnic, democratic and economically viable state. Despite an enourmous investment of personnel and resources, six years later BiH's post-Yugoslav future remains tenuous. Did the engineering project work ? In an era when countries from Somalia to Afghanistan are confronting questions of state legitimacy amidst international intervention, this book is a fascinating study on the dilemmas of the post-Cold War international order. How effective are international 'peace-building' interventions in fractured states ? Is the preservation of a multinational state desirable - or even possible - where the majority of citizens only reluctantly acknowledges its legitimacy ? Drawing on the author's extensive field experience, this book takes a hard look at the issues that Bosnia continues to face. Juxtaposing big-picture analysis with an intimate knowledge of the region, Bose situates the international community's extensive program of state-building and democratization in BiH since the Dayton Peace Agreement in the context of Bosnia's - and the former Yugoslavia's - complex historical legacy of coexistence and conflict. Bose tells the gripping story of the divided city of Mostar, and analyzes the post-Dayton institutional structure and process. He dissects the making of the Dayton peace accords through American-led coercive diplomacy, and provides a constructive critique of international peace-building.

U.S. Policy Toward the Former Yugoslavia / Stevan E. Meyer - Washington: Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, 2002.

For the United States, the period since 1990 has been a time of confusion, conflicting signals, arrogance, misunderstanding, anomie, and ultimately, failure as successive administrations tried to figure out what American policy toward the Balkans should be. As the author tries to clear away the underbrush of this period, four distinct periods in US policy toward Yugoslavia can be discerned. Hopefully, understanding these periods will help point the way to a more creative, positive, and successful US policy toward the former Yugoslavia.

NATO's Balkan Interventions / Dana H. Allin - Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2002.

The terrorist mass murders of 11 September 2001 transformed transatlantic priorities, drawing a line under a decade in which the wars of Yugoslavia's collapse dominated the transatlantic security relationship. Yet, despite progress in the region, Balkan instability retains the capacity to punish Western inattention, much as it did in the early 1990s. This paper examines NATO's Balkan interventions over the entire decade starting with the break-up of Yugoslavia in 1992. Focusing on the wars in Bosnia and Kosovo, it traces the record of early transatlantic failures and later successes as once bitterly divided allies were able, finally, to unite around some basic principles. By the time of the Kosovo intervention in Spring 1999, the allies agreed on the necessity of taking sides and using military force in conflicts that were complicated, but far from morally opaque. The paper concludes with some lessons around which the transatlantic allies might reasonably hope - despite other pressing concerns - to stay engaged and stay united.

Indictment at The Hague: The Milosevic Regime and Crimes of the Balkan War / Norman L. Cigar, Paul R. Williams - New York: New York University Press, 2002.

This book represents the most detailed examination of the conduct of the Milosevic regime and the individual responsibility of the senior members of its leadership for war crimes in Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina. The enquiry which forms the basis of this book, making a case and defining the grounds for the indictment of Milosevic, was initiated at a time when there appeared to be little, if any, prospect of the international community promoting an investigation, much less a formal indictment of those responsible for the war crimes. The indictments finally issued by the Tribunal are a confirmation of the validity of the argument and evidence presented here. This book therefore can be read as a detailed 'case study' which defines the nature and legal responsibility of a regime in the commission of war crimes and analyzes the legal and evidentiary facets that eventually formed the basis of the Tribunal's indictment of Slobodan Milosevic.

The War in Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina, 1991-1995 / ed. By Branka Magas and Ivo Zanic - London: Frank Cass, 2001.

It is not often that the world is able to watch a war day by day on the television screen, as was the case with the recent wars in Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina. But despite the unprecedented media coverage, and despite the fact that these two interdependent wars were the greatest armed conflicts in Europe in the second half of the twentieth century, they have not been systematically studied with a view to understanding their background and conduct; nor have practical lessons been drawn in anything more than a general manner. This is all the more surprising since their impact on the region's political landscape is still visible today and is likely to continue for the foreseeable future. A realistic understanding of these wars is vital in building a sound basis for the future of the successor states of former Yugoslavia, and for better relations between them. An analysis of their successes and failures is needed to serve the establishment of more stable and cooperative regional security. This volume examines both wars as part of an interrelated political-military process and includes the lively discussions among the participants.

The Kosovo Conflict and International Law: An Analytical Documentation, 1974-1999 / ed. by Heike Krieger - Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press, 2001.

This book provides international lawyers, scholars and students with access to material on the conflict in Kosovo. As well as the basic material relating to Kosovo's status in Yugoslavia before 1999, this volume reproduces the significant documentation on the following issues: the development of the human rights situation, the diplomatic efforts for the settlement of the crisis, the military action against Yugoslavia and the international community's response, court action with regard to the conflict, and the implementation of the principles for a political solution with an international civil and security presence in Kosovo. An analytical introduction provides the historical and political context as well as an overview of the various legal aspects of the conflict. A chronology and detailed index make the documents more accessible.

Under Orders : War Crimes in Kosovo - New York: Human Rights Watch, 2001.

This report documents the murders, rapes, forced expulsions, and other war crimes committed by Serbian and Yugoslav government forces against Kosovar Albanians between March 24 and June 12, 1999, the period of NATO's air campaign against Yugoslavia. The report documents a coordinated and systematic campaign to terrorize, kill, and expel the ethnic Albanians of Kosovo that was organized b the highest levels of the Serbian and Yugoslav governments in power at that time. The report also describes serious abuses committed by the Kosovo Liberation Army, which abducted and murdered civilians during and after the war, as well as by NATO, which failed to adequately minimize civilian casualites during its bombing of Yugoslavia. The primary focus, however, is the Serbian and Yugoslav state-sponsored violence inflicted against ethnic Albanian citizens of Yugoslavia.

The Third Yugoslavia, 1992-2001 / Sabrina P. Ramet - Washington: Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, 2001.

The third Yugoslavia was born on April 27, 1992, when Serbia and Montenegro proclaimed the establishment of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY).

The Conflict over Kosovo: Why Milosevic Decided to Settle When He Did / Stephen T. Holmer - Santa Monica, CA: Rand Corporation, 2001.

This report examines the reasons Slobodan Milosevic, the then president of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, decided on June 3, 1999, to accept NATO's conditions for terminating the conflict over Kosovo. Drawing in part upon the testimony of Milosevic and other senior Serb and foreign officials who directly interacted with Milosevic, the report analyzes (1) the assumptions and other calculations that underlay Milosevic's initial decision to defy NATO's demands with regard to Kosovo, and (2) the political, economic, and military developments and pressures, and the resulting expectations and concerns that most importantly influenced his subsequent decision to come to terms.

Some Reverberations from the the Kosovo War / C. J Dick - Camberley, UK: Conflict Studies Research Centre, 2001.

The war in Kosovo may well prove to have been a turning point in the development of the post-Cold War world. As a result of it, international perceptions of NATO and, to a lesser extent, the alliance's perception of itself, have changed. In consequence, many countries' attitudes towards the alliance and to their own security affairs may also have changed. The war has also shaken yet again the kaleidoscope that is the territory of former Yugoslavia. These changes form the subject of this paper.

Waging Modern War: Bosnia, Kosovo, and the Future of Combat / Wesley K. Clark - Oxford, UK: PublicAffairs, 2001.

Ugly, shocking, frightening, war came to Europe once more in March 1999. The world watched in dismay as Yugoslavia's military machine attacked its own citizens in the province of Kosovo. As had happened so often since the end of the Cold War, ethnic conflict had turned deadly, and the great powers seemed reluctant to get involved. This time, however, the United States and its allies intervened. Using an innovative, high-technology air operation, NATO brought modern military power to bear against Serb forces in the field and the machinery of repression that backed them up. It was modern war - limited in scope, measured in effect, extraordinarily complex in execution. And in the end, after ten weeks of steadily intensifying air attack, the Yugoslav troops were withdrawn and the Kosovar Albanians returned to their homes. Remarkably, the alliance held together despite the strains of war and the tug of differing national interests. In this book, the author recounts not only the events that led to armed conflict, but also the context within which he made the key strategic decisions. The author also describes, for the first time, how he walked the tightrope of high diplomacy and military strategy and navigated the crushing restraints of domestic politics. As the Supreme Allied Commander, Europe, the author faced a task far more daunting than simply when and where to deploy his forces and weapons. The author also had to mediate numerous conflicts that threatened to derail the alliance's efforts against the regime of Yugoslav President Slobodan Milosevic - conflicts between the Europeans and the Americans, between the policy makers and the journalists, between the diplomats and the military men. The war in Kosovo may have been short in duration, but it was a harbinger of the new realities of war-fighting and war-planning, and the author offers a blueprint for how modern militaries must adapt to meet the challenges of a new era.

One Year After NATO Bombardments in Yugoslavia: Security Issues, Common Policy Approaches and Public Perception: 2000-2002. A Report submited by IPER to NATO Office of Information and Press.

Europe and the Breakup of Yugoslavia: A Political Failure in Search of a Scholarly Explanation / Sonia Lucarelli - The Hague : Kluwer Law International, 2000.

On June 26, 1991, after some forty-six years without a war in Europe, violent conflict erupted in the territory of what used to be the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. It took more than four years of atrocities before a peace agreement was finally negotiated in Dayton, Ohio in November 1995. This book provides a detailed analysis of the response of Western Europe to the disintegration of Yugoslavia. The account pays particular attention to the behaviour of the major Member States of the European Community (later Union), i.e. France, Britain and Germany, in two crucial moments of debate and decision-making : the diplomatic recognition of Slovenia and Croatia in 1991, and the debate on the desirability and form of a possible military intervention in the warring country. By combining three theoretical approaches to the study of international politics - neorealism, neoliberal institutionalism and liberal intergovernmentalism - the author provides a theoretically informed analysis of the main forces behind Western Europe's response to the Yugoslav wars. Conclusions are drawn on the major characteristics of Western Europe's management of the conflict, the interplay of international and domestic factors behind the behaviour of Western European states, the relative explanatory power of each of the three theoretical perspectives and their common research tradition, and the prospective of the Common Foreign and Security Policy of the European Union. The book's reconstruction and evaluation of conflict management in ex-Yugoslavia, its attention on the influence of the European integration process on the foreign policy of its Member States, and its innovative use and assessment of International Relations theoretical tools, make it of topical interest for a wide range of scholars interested in both international and European political affairs.

Croatia: Three Elections and a Funeral / Trevor Waters - Camberley, UK: Conflict Studies Research Centre, 2000.

Croatia's passage into the new millennium was marked by the death, on 10 December 1999, of the self-proclaimed 'Father of the Nation', President Dr. Franjo Tudjman; by make or break Parliamentary Elections, held on 3 January 2000, which secured the crushing defeat of the former president's ruling Croatian Democratic Union, yielded victory for an alliance of the six mainstream opposition parties, and ushered in a new coalition government strong enough to implement far-reaching reform; and by two rounds, on 24 January and 7 February, of Presidential Elections which resulted in a surprising and spectacular victory for the charismatic Stipe Mesic, Yugoslavia's last president, nonetheless considered by many Croats at the start of the campaing as an outsider, a man from the past. These turn of the century events are viewed as beneficial for the development of genuine democracy in the newly independent state, as heralding the dawn of a vibrant 'Democroatia', and thus smoothing the way for the country's integration into Euro-Atlantic structures. This paper reviews the events and affirms - albeit cautiously - such positive hopes for the future.

Reconciliation via the War Crimes Tribunal? / Aleksandar Fatic - Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2000.

This is an examination of the issues of reconciliation after civil wars and the role international war crimes tribunals play in facilitating that reconciliation, apart from enforcing justice against perpetrators of war crimes. This book argues that war crime tribunals are partial and will be counterproductive.

Slovenia and the Slovenes: A Small State and the New Europe / James Gow, Cathie Carmichael - London : Hurst, 2000.

This volume is the first serious assessment of Slovenia and the Slovenes in English, and looks critically at the history of the people and the land, the impact of geography and the national language on culture, society and politics, as well as the Slovenian experience of the Yugoslav state and the evolution towards, preparation for and development after independence. The book goes against the grain of recent Slovenian academic writing which has tended to skip over the more than seventy years of incorporation within federal Yugoslavia and diminish the value of that long period for the Slovenians, regarding it as something of an aberration. Instead, the authors argue here that, while the peculiarities of Slovene as a language have fostered a separate identity for its speakers, the Slovenian state which emerged was a direct product of Yugoslavia.

NATO's Empty Victory : A Postmortem on the Balkan War / ed. by Ted Galen Carpenter - Washington : Cato Institute, 2000.

NATO political leaders claim that the war against Yugoslavia was a great victory, the authors of these essays disagree. The war lasted for longer than anticipated and triggered a refugee crisis. The book offers proposals for preventing the 'victory' becoming an even bigger policy fiasco.

Origins of a Catastrophe: Yugoslavia and Its Destroyers / Warren Zimmermann - New York: Times Books, 1999.

In this revised edition, Warren Zimmermann, the last US ambassador to Yugoslavia, updates his prescient account of the catastrophe now occurring in the Balkans. He provides an insightful analysis of what has happened in Bosnia since the Dayton accord, of the war and ethnic cleansing taking place in Kosovo, and of why America has become involved.

Dubious Mandate: A Memoir of the UN in Bosnia, Summer 1995 / Phillip Corwin - Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1999.

A critical year in the history of peacekeeping, 1995 saw the dramatic transformation of the role of United Nations' forces in Bosnia from being a protective force to being an active combatant under NATO leadership. Phillip Corwin, the UN's chief political officer in Sarajevo during the summer of that year, presents a first-person, insider's account of the momentous events that led to that transformation. The book interweaves personal experiences of daily life in a war zone - supply shortages, human suffering, assassination attempts, corruption - with historical facts, as Corwin challenges commonly held views of the war with his own highly informed, discerning, and trenchant political commentary.

Operation Deliberate Force: the UN and NATO Campaign in Bosnia 1995 / Tim Ripley - Lancaster : Centre for Defence and International Security Studies, 1999.

During the evening of 10th September 1995, thirteen US Navy Tomahawk cruise missiles devasted a Bosnian Serb communications tower in the climax of a joint NATO and UN military operation to lift the siege of Sarajevo. Three days later Serb leaders agreed to pull their guns back and two months later the Dayton Peace Accords ended the war. This book tells for the first time the inside story of the military moves that brought three year long Bosnian war to an end. Senior western military commanders, UN 'blue helmets', and NATO airmen describe their roller-coaster year, from the disasters of the spring and summer of 1995 through to launching of Operation Deliberate Force in August and September.

UN Peacekeeping in Trouble: Lessons Learned from the Former Yugoslavia: Peacekeepers' Views on the Limits and Possibilities of the United Nations in a Civil War-like Conflict / ed. by Wolfgang Bierman and Martin Vadset - Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 1999.

This book is intended to fill a gap in the literature about peacekeeping in the former Yugoslavia through a combination of empirical methods. The project combines qualitative research with quantitative methods to analyse the views of the practitioners on different aspects of peacekeeping and conflict mediation.

La France et la gestion des conflits yougoslaves (1991-1995): enjeux et lecons d'une operation de maintien de la paix de l'ONU / Thierry Tardy - Bruxelles: Bruylant, 1999.

Forging War: The Media in Serbia, Croatia, Bosnia and Hercegovina / Mark Thompson - Luton: University of Luton Press, 1999.

The author's purpose in this undertaking is to document and analyse the subordination of news media in Serbia, Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina to national agendas and to direct or indirect control by the given regime. With exhaustive and thorough documentation based on both printed and broadcast media in these three states, Thompson shows how independent media were variously suppressed or taken over by the respective regimes. The media played a key role in heating up tensions prior to the war and in reinforcing nationalist notions of self-righteousness. Misrepresentation and distortion became commonplace in the post-Yugoslav media. Most people now recognize that a strong independent media is an essential prerequisite of an enduring democracy. Thompson's analysis of what we might call the ethnic nationalist media in Serbia, Bosnia and Croatia makes clear their role in literally forging the war. The fragmentation of the media in what was formerly Yugoslavia both contributed to and presently reinforces the causes of conflict.

Serbia Under Milosevic: Politics in the 1990s / Robert Thomas - London : Hurst, 1999.

This study examines, in the context of Serbia's political and cultural development, how in the late 1980s a faction within the Serbian Communist Party, led by Slobodan Milosevic, was able to exploit national and constitutional tensions within the former Yugoslavia in order to preserve its power.

Target Bosnia: Integrating Information Activities in Peace Operations: NATO-Led Operations in Bosnia-Herzegovina, December 1995-1997 / Pascale Combelles-Siegel - Washington : National Defense University Press, 1998.

With each day that passes drawing us further down the path from the Industrial to the Information age, many officers are convinced that victory is no longer determined on the ground, but in media reporting. This is even more true in peace support operations (PSO) where the goal is not to conquer territory or defeat an enemy but to persuade parties in conflict (as well as the local populations) into a favored course of action. This monograph examines the role of information in PSO and its impact on command and control through the prism of NATO-led operations in Bosnia-Herzegovina from December 1995 into 1997.

The Issues Raised by Bosnia, and the Transatlantic Debate - Paris: Institute for Security Studies of Western European Union, 1998.

The aim of this paper is to analyse definitions regarding the future shape of Bosnia (integration or partition), the practical implementation of Dayton, the different scenarios for an international presence in Bosnia (progressive withdrawal, short-term or long-term presence, a deterrent or reconstruction force), as well as transatlantic relations (competition or cooperation). The four authors have been invited to follow the same framework of analysis, reviewing the problems mentioned above while endeavouring to set out the specific positions of their respective countries : Germany, France, the United Kingdom and the United States. Using a common framework of analysis should allow a comparison of the approach to developments in the European security agenda taken by the most important actors, in particular the European partners, to be made.

Bosnia and the New Collective Security / Elinor Camille Sloan - Westport, CT: Praeger, 1998.

This work examines two complex and interrelated topics : the role of ìpeacekeeping and related operations in managing nontraditional crises, ìand the international community's response to the recent conflict in ìBosnia. The author explains the changing nature of international ìinvolvement and draws out lessons for the future.

Blue Helmets: The Strategy of UN Military Operations / John Hillen - Washington : Brassey's, 1998.

This book is the first to comprehensively address the performance of the United Nations over the past fifty years as an employer of military force and to examine the organization's ability to handle military operations. Analyzing thirty-eight UN military operations conducted worldwide since 1948, international security expert John Hillen answers important questions about the UN's competency to handle complex future operations. With UN operations now costing billions of dollars each year and involving tens of thousands of troops in dangerous operations, many observers have questioned what the appropriate role of the UN should be in global security. Dr. Hillen's conclusions, which include timely postmortems of UN operations in the former Yugoslavia and Somalia, may have a profound impact on the future of collective security. With a foreword by Ambassador Robert Oakley, this book is essential reading for anyone interested in the United Nations and international security in today's volatile world.

Projecting Stability : NATO and Multilateral Naval Cooperation in the Post Cold War Era / Joel J Sokolsky - Halifax, NS: Dalhousie University, 1998.

The purpose of this study is to examine NATO multinational maritime cooperation in the post-Cold War era and assess its effectiveness in supporting the new objectives of the Atlantic Alliance. The study begins with a discussion of sea power in the post-Cold War era with particular reference to NATO. This is followed by a brief overview of the state of the Russian Navy. It then turns to a review of the ways in which the Alliance has tried to adjust its maritime organization and posture in order to accommodate the changed international strategic environment. The next section looks specifically at the role of the Alliance's maritime forces in peace support missions, particularly in the former Yugoslavia. This is followed by a discussion of the approach of the USN to maritime multilateralism before turning to maritime implications of creating a distinctively European multinational maritime structure. Finally, the paper looks across the Atlantic to Canada and the role that its navy has and can play within the larger allied maritime framework.

Replacing SFOR in Bosnia: Options for a DFOR in 1998 / Michael Clarke, Andrew Duncan - London: Brassey's, 1997.

As the end of the mandate of the NATO-led multinational Stabilisation Force in Bosnia approaches in June 1998 questions regarding a successor force are now being urgently addressed. The desirability and practicability of a successor force is dependent upon a series of difficult contingent questions, all of which have to be answered in some way before a successor force can be either established or discounted. Such questions revolve around the likely outcome in Bosnia if SFOR were not replaced; an assessment of the success of the Dayton Accords and a consideration of whether the military can do more to increase its effectiveness; the question of whether the United States will remain in any new arrangement, and if it does not, whether the Europeans will shoulder the responsibility; whether the Europeans have the required military strength and political will to do so; the problem of the size of any new force - on present trends it might be smaller, but it would almost certainly have to be reinforced if Dayton is to be, in effect, imposed upon the parties.

Lessons from Bosnia: The IFOR Experience / ed. by Larry K. Wentz - Vienna, VA: CCRP, 1997.

The Road to Peace : NATO and the International Community in Bosnia / Rupert Wolfe Murray - Edinburgh: Connect, 1997.

Many of the world's leading international organisations are spending millions of dollars in an attempt to kick start the democratic process and economic regeneration in Bosnia. However, Bosnia is still a divided country where tensions between the former warring parties run high and much of the Dayton Peace Agreement, signed by all parties, is being blatantly ignored. Unless international law prevails, beginning with the arrest and trial of the indicted war criminals, it is hard to see how the withdrawal of SFOR troops in 1998 can lead to anything but a renewal of war. This book gives a unique insight into the role of the NATO peacekeepers in Bosnia. In a series of commentaries, and exclusive interviews with key people in SFOR and organisations such as the International Police Task Force, the United Nations High Commission for Refugees, and the Overseas Development Administration, this book assesses the chances of a lasting peace.

U.S. Participation in IFOR : A Marathon, Not a Sprint / William Thomas Johnsen - Carlisle Barracks, PA: US Army War College, 1996.

The US decision to join the Implementation Force (IFOR) for the General Framework Agreement for Peace in Bosnia and Hercegovina (familiarly known as the Dayton Accords) marked a crucial milestone toward achieving the US national objective of a lasting political settlement to the conflict in Bosnia. Equally critical will be determining whether the United States will continue participating in IFOR beyond the currently established 12-month deadline.

IFOR on IFOR: NATO Peacekeepers in Bosnia-Herzegovina / ed. by Rupert Wolfe Murray - Edinburgh: Connect, 1996.

This book is a unique account of the NATO-led mission in Bosnia. Using specially commissioned photographs and interviews, it looks at the work, equipment and opinions of the people behind the force.

Post-Mortem on UNPROFOR / Richard Caplan - London: Brassey's, 1996.

This study examines the UN's peacekeeping operation in the former Yugoslavia, the United Nations Protection Force (UNPROFOR), from its inception in February 1992 to its effective termination in January 1996. Not since the UN intervention in the Congo in the early 1960s have UN peacekeepers been involved in a more controversial operation - and one that by the Organization's own admission exhibited only limited success. This study explores why, despite some notable achievements, UNPROFOR largely failed to meet its stated objectives. It also draws lessons from the experience for UN peacekeeping reform.

Yugoslavia Through Documents : From Its Creation to Its Dissolution / ed. by Snezana Trifunovska - Dordrecht: Nijhoff, 1994.

This book contains more than 360 documents relevant to the international legal position of the Yugoslav terrorities in the 19^th century, the creation of Yugoslavia as a common state of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, 1918, its constitutional development and the process of dissolution of Yugoslavia and the creation of the new states of Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia and the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.

Lessons of Yugoslavia / Nicole Gnesotto - Paris: Institute for Security Studies of Western European Union, 1994.

The United Nations and NATO in Former Yugoslavia: Partners in International Cooperation / Dick A. Leurdijk ; ed. by Auke . Venema - The Hague: Netherlands Atlantic Commission, 1994.

This study on the evolving relationship between the United Nations and the North Atlantic Alliance is also a useful summary of events relating to the former Yugoslavia. Furthermore, it includes an appendix on the decision-making by the United Nations Security Council concerning the former Yugoslavia.

Analyses of the Conflict in Former Yugoslavia / Anton Zakbar - Vienna: National Defence Academy, 1994.

Peace Conference on Former Yugoslavia: The Politico-Military Interface / Graham Messervy-Whitting - London: Brassey's, 1994.

The aim of this study is to examine the politico-military interface in the Conference's relations with the local parties, with other international bodies and national governments, with the agencies on the ground, then within ICFY itself, during the period ended August 1993. A chronological summary, covering the period up until August 1993 of ICFY's main activities, is annexed for the record.

Europe and Yugoslavia : Lessons from a Failure / Jonathan Eyal - London: Royal United Services Institute for Defence Studies, 1993.

Articles

Thies, Wallace J.

Compellence Failure or Coercive Success? The case of NATO and Yugoslavia.

COMPARATIVE STRATEGY, vol. 22, no. 3, 2003, p. 243-267.

What is coercion? How does it work? Much recent work in this regard has centered on two issues : the relative merits of punishment versus denial strategies, and whether air power can work in the absence of forces on the ground. These are important issues, but they also convey the misleading impression that coercion is something that occurs after the first bomb is dropped. This paper argues than an air war is better viewed as a last resort that occurs only after the failure to deter and/or compel by means of verbal threats and threatening gestures. Whether such verbal threats and threatening gestures are done well or poorly will go a long way toward explaining 1) whether an air war is necessary at all, 2) how long and how hard the target will resist, and 3) whether the target can be coerced at a price a coercer is willing to pay. To illustrate these points, the paper re-examines four instances of deterrence and compellence that precedes NATO's 1999 air war against Yugoslavia over Kosovo. Theses four episodes are used to shed new light on why the air war was necessary, why it took much longer than expected for air power to 'work', and why the Yugoslav government led by Slobodan Milosevic thought it could get away with depopulating Kosovo of its ethnic Albanian majority.

Popovski, Vesselin

The UN Security Council Approach to the Conflicts in Former Yugoslavia.

JOURNAL OF SOUTHEAST EUROPEAN AND BLACK SEA STUDIES, vol. 2, no. 3, September 2002, p. 39-62.

This article analyses UN Security Council resolutions taken in respect to the former Yugoslavia, revealing their specifics and comparative (dis)advantages to the Security Council involvement in other conflicts. It shows how the Security Council enlarged the interpretation of what may constitute a 'threat to international peace and security', what innovative actions were undertaken and how the concept of sanctions gradually evolved from blanket economic sanctions against states into targeted measures against individuals.

Simic, Predrag

Russia and the Conflicts in the Former Yugoslavia.

JOURNAL OF SOUTHEAST EUROPEAN AND BLACK SEA STUDIES, vol. 1, no. 3, September 2001, p. 95-114.

Moscow's efforts to redefine its national interests and relations with the West in the post-Cold War era has directed the country's stance towards the conflicts in former Yugoslavia. Russia's intention to present itself as an influential power in the international efforts to manage the crises following the dissolution of Yugoslavia largely explains Moscow's frequently contradictory stances, not only towards the wars in Bosnia and Kosovo, but also in its intention to play the role of an effective mediator in the region. At the same time, Russia' strategic concern to sustain its international standing and influence through its membership in international organizations, such as the UN and OSCE, has rendered Moscow as the state that considers the weakening of those organizations as one of its external security threats.

Rupnik, Jacques

Yugoslavia After Milosevic.

SURVIVAL, vol. 43, no. 2, Summer 2001, p. 19-29.

The wars of Yugoslavia's dissolution might not be over yet. There remains much unfinished business, including, most urgently, the question of Kosovo's future status. If left unresolved, this question could well trigger a new round of violence and instability. If an obvious and satisfactory solution existed, it would already be known. None of the available options - including a reconfigured Yugoslavia containing an autonomous Kosovo, an indefinite international protectorate, or Kosovo's partition - are appealing. The least problematic option is probably to prepare Kosovo for a form of 'conditional' independence, with heavy international supervision of minority rights and guarantees against further revisions of borders. This would require the new Serb leadership to make a clean break with the Milosevic era and the myth of Serbian 'reconquest' of Kosovo. It also would require Kosovo Albanian leadership that is mature enough to embrace a twenty-first century - rather than a nineteenth-century - concept of sovereignty.

Tsygankov, Andrei P.

The Final Triumph of the Pax Americana? Western Intervention in Yugoslavia and Russia's Debate on the Post-Cold War Order.

COMMUNIST AND POST-COMMUNIST STUDIES, vol. 34, no. 2, June 2001, p. 133-156.

This paper addresses the question of world order by considering how Western military actions in Yugoslavia were perceived from a different cultural perspective. It traces how the NATO-led bombing campaign during March-June of 1999 affected various visions of world order that had existed in Russia before the campaign and describes the discursive change this campaign produced. The argument is made that Russia's foreign policy elites, from Westernizers to Neo-Communists and Expansionists, perceived Western goals in Yugoslavia differently from their counterparts in the West. However, they differed in their recommendations regarding Russia's response and lessons to be drawn from the Kosovo crisis. The paper also identifies several points where the different perspectives can converge. More specifically, all Russian schools of thought viewed the NATO campaign as a dangerous precedent potentially destabilizing the existing world order. They also shared the conviction that Russia should play a larger role in world affairs and that without Russia's involvement there could be no peace and stability in the Balkans and in Europe. They point to the UN as the only forum for debating the legitimacy of military interventions and for preventing interventions carried out without the approval of the UN.

Uzgel, Ihlan

Finishing the Unfinished Revolution : the Return of Yugoslavia to Europe.

PERCEPTIONS, vol. 6, no. 1, March - May 2001, p. 151-165.

Gordy, Eric D.

Building a 'Normal, Boring' Country : Kostunica's Yugoslavia.

CURRENT HISTORY, vol. 1000, no. 644, March 2001, p. 109-113.

The fall of the Milosevic regime has much meanings in itself, and a strong desire to imagine a better future can be sensed everywhere. But nothing is assured unless the new government is able to make this desire concrete.

Sandhal, Erik

Humanitarian Demining in Peace Support Operations : NATO's Experience in Former Yugoslavia.

MILITARY TECHNOLOGY, vol. 24, no. 11, 2000, p. 32-35.

The primary mission for troops deployed in Peace Support Operations (PSO's) is to provide a secure environment in which the population can live in normal conditions and the civil organisations can work safely to rebuild countries ravaged by war. Mine clearance and demining are key priorities for both international military forces and specialized UN agencies and Non-Governmental Organisations (NGO's) in this process, especially in areas where refugees and displaced persons are expected to return in their homes. These vital tasks also provide a good example of how civil and military may work together.

Karadzole, Boran

The Power of Deception : Yugoslavia in the Aftermath of the Confrontation with NATO.

PERCEPTIONS, vol. 5, no. 1, March - May 2000, p. 147-160.

Chernichenko, S.

NATO's Operation in Yugoslavia.

INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS (Minneapolis), vol. 46, no. 1, 2000, p. 168-177.

Ronzitti, Natalino

Lessons of International Law from NATO's Armed Intervention Against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.

INTERNATIONAL SPECTATOR, vol. 34, no. 3, July - September 1999, p. 45-54.

The author discusses the various official and academic arguments put forward regarding the legality of NATO's military action, undertaken without authorisation from the UN Security Council, and the problems associated with the effort to establish a convincing doctrine of humanitarian intervention. He examines how the search for a new legitimacy of international actions against countries that violate fundamental human rights can be satisfied without undermining the essential role of the UN System. In the concluding part of the article, the author argues in favour of the Security Council giving a general authorisation - as opposed to a case-by-case one - to regional organisations to undertake enforcement actions, while maintaining the ultimate power to stop them.

Williams, John

The Ethical Basis of Humanitarian Intervention, the Security Council and Yugoslavia.

INTERNATIONAL PEACEKEEPING, vol. 6, no. 2, Summer 1999, p. 1-23.

The article analyses the text of Security Council Resolutions on the conflict in the former Yugoslavia for the period between September 1991 and 1997. It searches for evidence of a shift on the part of the Council towards an acceptance of the idea of universal human rights and their importance to international peace and security. The article concludes that the Resolutions do suggest that such a shift is underway, and this contributes to a greater concern for justice as an element of order in international relations.

Sharp, Jane M. O.

Missed Opportunities in Former Yugoslavia.

STUDIA DIPLOMATICA, vol. 51, no. 6, 1998, p. 15-24.

Liotta, P. H.

The Ethics of Intervention in the Former Yugoslavia.

EUROPEAN SECURITY, vol. 7, no. 4, Winter 1998, p. 33-68.

The United States' intervention, diplomatically and militarily, in former Yugoslavia demonstrates the complexities of social justice in post-Cold War Europe. Nominally an action to support 'vital' American interests, intervention equally involved a moral and ethical choice to leverage military technology and to prevent the spread of Balkan violence. Ethical politics, as Reinhold Niebuhr defines it, is an area where conscience and power meet, where ethical and coercive factors 'interpenetrate' in an uneasy compromise. Whether or not the will to a political ethic is sufficient to bring social justice to the former Yugoslavia remains unclear.

Schulte, Gregory L.

Former Yugoslavia and the New NATO.

SURVIVAL, vol. 39, no. 1, Spring 1997, p. 19-42.

NATO's involvement in former Yugoslavia has graphically illustrated how the Alliance has adapted since the Cold War. At the same time, this involvement has given impetus and reality to many aspects of NATO's transformation. With the Peace Implementation Force (IFOR) and now the Stabilisation Force (SFOR), NATO is operating 'out of area', with all 16 allies and in coalition with forces from over half the countries in its Partnership for Peace (PfP) programme. NATO has established practical cooperation with the UN, the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) and other international organisations. A major lesson from this experience is the need to ensure that future peace-support missions are clearly defined and backed by adequate mandates and resources. NATO will also want to develop its capabilities for civil-military cooperation and to establish standing mechanisms to incorporate Russia and other PfP countries into future operations.